Did you find the subject of history tediously uninteresting when you were at school? Were you bored to tears when being made to learn about our past from chalkboards and textbooks? If you were, then you certainly weren’t alone.

Perhaps, on the other hand, those visits to museums ignited some spark of interest in our past but left you feeling somewhat frustrated. You felt an overwhelming desire to touch the artefacts and coins that were once the everyday items of use by our ancestors, but those glass barriers denied you the privilege of making that physical contact with the past. Again, you certainly weren’t alone.

Until about three decades ago that privilege was reserved for the lucky few such as archaeologists, museum staff, historians, and scholars.

Archaeologists, of course, would normally have been the first to touch any object that came out of the ground after having been lost or deliberately hidden for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. These finds would then have been forwarded to museums, which had the task of cleaning and conserving the artefacts prior to them being studied by experts and scholars. Only then would a select few of these treasures be put on display for the public to admire.

Towards the end of the 1960s, however, new technology appeared that would change that system and grant the privilege of handling old or ancient finds to the mainstream public. The hobby of metal detecting had been born.
Early metal detectors were quite rudimentary. Their basic design gave them the appearance of a simple transistor radio attached to a stick with a small coil on the end.

By the 1970s, however, metal detector technology had improved dramatically. The machines that began appearing on the market were vastly superior to their rather basic predecessors, and this was reflected in the number of amazing discoveries that were being made. The Water Newton hoard and the Thetford hoard are just two examples of some of the fabulous treasures that came to light in those early years.

Enthusiasm for the hobby grew and it became an increasingly popular pastime. Visitors to the coast soon became accustomed to the strange characters that could be seen pacing up and down the beach swinging their electronic “wands” in search of lost valuables.

Early “treasure hunters” who weren’t fortunate enough to live near the coast were hardly disadvantaged, however. They were soon to discover that the countryside around them had an even greater potential. Britain had literally millions of acres of “virgin” farmland that had never been detected on previously. Excitement grew over the staggering number of amazing finds that were being made by the early pioneers of metal detecting. Museum cabinets soon began to fill as more and more treasures came to light.

Many began to see the hobby’s potential as increasing numbers of new archaeological sites were discovered. In addition, the discovery of many previously unrecorded types of coins and artefacts improved our knowledge of Britain’s past. However, there were some people who were rather less than enthusiastic about this new pastime.

Many within the archaeological community regarded metal detectorists as a threat to the nation’s heritage rather than a huge potential benefit. Campaigns were launched in order to have severe restrictions imposed on the use of metal detectors; some even wanted the hobby banned altogether.

Fortunately, the rights of the general public to go exploring the countryside with metal detectors were upheld. Ancient Treasure Trove laws and Codes of Conduct were emphasised to all users of metal detectors and were accepted as a fair compromise.

Although some hardliners still exist within the archaeological community, the attitudes of many have softened in recent years. The realisation that co-operation could bring far greater benefits than confrontation has, in many cases, resulted in good working relationships in some parts of the country.

Examples of this “symbiosis” have certainly been demonstrated in recent years when major archaeological discoveries have been made by detectorists and left in situ for the archaeologists to excavate. There have even been cases where long held beliefs about the past have had to be revised owing to discoveries made by metal detectorists. A classic example of this occurred in Germany in the last decade.

In AD 9 Germanic tribesmen known as the Cherusci ambushed and massacred the armies of the Roman general Varus. Over 20,000 Roman troops and followers were slaughtered in the attack. For centuries, the site of this battle had been accepted as being somewhere in the vicinity of the modern town of Bielefeld, which is close to the Tuetoberger Vald.

Some years ago, however, a serving British Army officer using a metal detector unearthed startling evidence of a major battle some 20 miles from the town. Excavations carried out by archaeologists at the site soon revealed many fabulous relics and coins from the beginning of the 1st century AD, including a superb Roman cavalry mask. Evidence of a battle was overwhelming and soon the experts realised that the army officer had located the true site of the battle. The history books had to be re-written.

What Remains To Be Found?

Whatever your reason for taking up metal detecting, doubts may have crossed your mind as to whether there’s actually still anything left out there for you to find. Well, take heart. You only have to flick through the pages of any of the major metal detecting magazines, such as Treasure Hunting, to see that amazing finds are still coming up in abundance. This does not mean that there is an infinite amount of material in the ground, however. Many heavily worked sites do tend to “dry up” after years of being searched and find rates diminish.

Soil conditions play a major part in finding lost coins and artefacts. The wrong conditions often cause many finds to be missed (soil conditions will be dealt with in a later chapter).

Another reason why finds are still coming up in abundance is due to the advances in metal detector design. The introduction of microprocessor technology has revolutionised metal detecting just as it has all other aspects of our lives.

In the early years, most metal detectors were simply equipped with an on/off switch and a tuning knob. By the mid-1970s some “top-of-the-range” models began sporting extra knobs to control both ground effect and discrimination (the ability to distinguish ferrous from non-ferrous metals).

Compare the models of yesteryear with what is available on the market today and you’ll see a vast difference. Although there are still many fairly basic metal detectors on the market that give superb performance, many highly-sophisticated models now incorporate computer technology that gives performance and capabilities undreamt of perhaps 20 years ago. These often have a price tag to match, however.

Another reason why there is much yet to find is that there are still many hundreds of thousands of acres of land still un-searched. Most individual detectorists and detecting clubs, spend much of what time they have available searching their regular sites.

It would, of course, be almost impossible to try and estimate just how much material has already been recovered over the past 30 years and then try to estimate how much is actually left to find. But it is safe to say that more finds still remain in the soil of Britain than have so far been recovered from it.

Some of this material is buried in the ground at depths that cannot be reached without specialised and expensive equipment. Even the best machines currently on the market have limitations on their depth-seeking capabilities. You will, of course, hear many “Fishermen’s tales” from other detectorists who claim that they regularly find coins at depths of 12in, for example. The truth is that the coin was originally only 3in or 4in down but in their struggle to locate it, they dug an even deeper hole and the coin kept falling down it!

We have seen remarkable improvements in the design and technology of metal detectors in recent years; some of these have increased depth-seeking capabilities to some extent. However, most detectorists are resigned to the fact that unbelievable amounts of ancient artefacts and treasures are now buried at depths that put them well beyond the reach of current technology. But who knows what the future holds?

If you have already started to take an interest in metal detecting, then there is a good chance that you will have come across one or more of the hobby’s magazines. Glancing through these, you may have been bewildered by the apparently staggering number of different machines that are currently available on the market.

Unless you have already acquired a metal detector, you will probably be wondering at this point which machine is most suitable for you. To help in making this decision you need to ask yourself the following:-

How much am I willing to spend?

How much time will I devote to using my new detector?

How good am I at adapting to new technology?

All three questions, believe it or not, are closely linked. There have been many people who have jumped straight in at the deep end and purchased very sophisticated and expensive machines, only to find that they don’t understand how to use them. As a consequence, they either get sold or end up gathering dust in a cupboard having never had a sniff of a bit of silver.

Most detectorists begin either with a cheap basic model, or one costing little more than a couple of hundred pounds. With experience gained, they then usually trade up for something more upmarket.

If you’re unlikely to spend much time out in the fields then an expensive machine may not be a good investment. Saying that, of course, there have been occasions when fortunate prospectors have ventured out for the first or second time and found something worth more than the machine they have just purchased!

This actually happened to me (Dave Stuckey). After having purchased my first machine in 1976 at a staggering cost of £80, I took it out for its first trial and within minutes I found a solid gold pocket watch. The scrap value of the gold more than covered the cost of the detector.

History & Development

To explain the differences between the different types of metal detectors available it is necessary to go a little into their history and development. (If some of the terms used are unfamiliar please see the Glossary included later in this book).

The first types of hobby metal detectors to become readily available in Britain in the late 1960s were BFO (Beat Frequency Oscillation) models. These were very basic and thus cheap and easy to produce….and buy. Most had two basic controls: on/off-volume, and tune. Tune consisted of setting the detector to a faint ticking noise that could be heard continually from the speaker (or headphones). When a target was located this ticking noise would increase in frequency. They had single coil open search heads, which made pinpointing a find difficult. Depth was seldom more than a few inches. They had no discrimination and would pick up nails, silver paper and ring pulls as well as wanted targets such as coins. They were also subject to drift and needed retuning every few minutes (or sometimes less!). Despite their primitive nature, fields, commons and other sites were “virgin territory” and some good finds were made by their users.

Several American detector manufacturers produced more advanced models of BFOs in the 1970s, but other designs eventually overtook these early machines. To my knowledge none are available new today although some may still be found at car boot sales or in junk shops. However, they are more of a curiosity and collector’s item than a usable piece of equipment.

The next model to become available in Britain in the early 1970s (although already established in the USA) worked on the IB/TR (Induction Balance/ Transmit Receive) principle. These had two balanced coils in their search head, and would signal when a metal object disrupted their electromagnetic search field. Depth and pinpointing was a lot better than on earlier models. Although at first they did not have variable discrimination, some would naturally reject small pieces of iron or tiny fragments of silver paper. Most models, again, had two controls: on/off-volume, and tune. Tuning consisted of adjusting the control so that just a faint noise could be heard. When a target was located this would increase in volume. However, the problem remained of drift and the need for manual retuning when this occurred.

The problem was partially overcome with the development of push-button auto-retuning. This new control was a button that was held down while the detector was being tuned to threshold and then released. If the detector drifted from its pre-selected threshold point, all that was necessary was to push the button to bring it back to threshold.

Variable discrimination, which appeared at around this time, was another technological advance. Detectors of this type were usually referred to as: “TR/Discriminators”. Here a rotary control could be used to set the detector’s reject level to unwanted junk targets. However, the use of discrimination brought three disadvantages: it increased the detector’s susceptibility to mineralised ground; it caused loss of depth; and it meant that wanted targets were sometimes rejected alongside unwanted ones.

The next development, in the mid-1970s, was the VLF/TR (Very Low Frequency/Transmit Receive). Detectors of this type had, in effect, two separate circuits. One circuit, the VLF was less prone to mineralisation and could provide good depth. However, it was all metal and could not reject junk items. The TR side could discriminate but had less depth. Thus searching was carried out in VLF mode, and once a target was located the detector was switched to TR to establish if it was junk or a wanted find. The problem with this system was the need to switch back and forth between the two modes.

The invention that overcame this was meter discrimination. In detectors of this type both circuits were working at once, the VLF all-metal side controlling the audio while the TR discrimination side worked the meter. Thus all registered targets came through on audio but the meter needle swung left for junk, right for wanted targets. Further developments included variable discrimination on the TR side, and an overlay of tone on the VLF side (low for junk, high for wanted targets). On some models of this type of detector it is possible to select meter or tone discrimination, or both. Such detectors are still in production today and have proved very effective in the hands of their adherents, particularly on finding good targets amongst high levels of junk contamination.

Most detectors today are of the “motion” type that made an appearance in the late 1970s to early 1980s. Such detectors can overcome ground effect while discriminating at the same time by means of continually and automatically auto-tuning. At first the sweep speed had to be very fast, but further developments slowed this down to normal. To register a target with a motion detector the search head has to be in movement. If the search head is held stationary over a target the auto-tune circuitry will simply cancel it out. However, many motion detectors have an all-metal, non-motion mode for pinpointing and, even without this, pinpointing can be achieved quite easily as the coil movement required to register a target can be very slow.

During the mid to late 1980s computer technology began to be incorporated into metal detectors. In the same way that it is possible to programme a computer, it is now possible to programme certain detectors with a host of variables by means of an LCD screen and touch pad controls. These detectors come with basic “factory pre-set” programmes or you can devise and store a programme that you have developed yourself to cope with the conditions of a particular site. Some detectorists take readily to this new technology while others prefer simple “switch on and go” machines. Space does not allow us to go into further detail, but such detectors are - and will continue to be - fully covered in the hobby literature.

In parallel to the developments described above have been those involving PI (Pulse Induction) detectors, first available to the hobby market in Britain in the 1970s. PI detectors put out a very strong electromagnetic field that energises metal objects buried in the ground and creates eddy currents around them. This makes such targets easier to detect. The system is virtually free from ground effect and Pulse detectors can be capable of above-average depths. However, PI detectors are sensitive to iron and many have no ability to discriminate against this or other types of metal. This makes them difficult - or often impossible - to use on inland sites. Battery drain is also often higher than with normal detectors.

Most modern detectors can operate quite well on wet sand on beaches if they have a “Beach” mode but Pulse Induction units are considered to be the best for this kind of site. The greatest advantage they have over conventional detectors is their greater depth-seeking capabilities and the ability to ignore mineralisation. Many come in waterproof cases that make them ideal for searching a beach down at the water’s edge and into the surf.

At present several new developments are underway, and PI machines are actually available that the manufacturers claim can be used on inland sites. Future evolutions in PI technology are worth following with interest.

With conventional detectors there is a broad spectrum of makes and models to choose from. There are relatively low-cost machines that are simple to operate and give reasonable performance. Following this, there are many models that are more sophisticated but cost several hundred pounds. These types of detectors offer very good performance, however, and are probably the most widely used.

Apart from the detectors mentioned above, there are also more specialised machines designed specifically for underwater detecting and hoard hunting. The hoard hunting machines tend to be simply a large box with a coil at each end, and are designed to look for large targets, such as pots of coins, buried at great depths. They are, generally, less efficient at locating smaller targets nearer the surface.

A final consideration is that of weight and balance. Some detectors are light enough for long hours of use by youngsters or by the infirm/elderly; others are heavy and are best suited for fit adults. One way to overcome weight problems is to buy a detector with a detachable control box that can be belt or chest mounted, saving fatigue on the arm. If poss-ible, “try before you buy”.

Search Coils

Metal detector search coils come in a variety of shapes and sizes from just a few inches across to a staggering 18in! Some are concentric (polo coils) and some are even “web” shaped. Several makes of detectors offer the ability to interchange from one type of coil to another.

Smaller coils tend to have better pinpointing capabilities and are easier to use on rough ground or on sites that are overgrown and where manoeuvrability is a problem.

Larger coils usually offer greater depth capabilities and can cover more ground in a shorter space of time. These coils quite often add considerable weight to a machine and are more suited to flatter ground surfaces.

Concentric coils put out a search field resembling an inverted cone. Size for size they usually go deeper and are often better when searching junk-infested sites. Double-D or wide scan coils, with their cylindrical search fields, normally provide better and faster ground coverage.

It is worth checking, before you make a purchase, that the type of detector you wish to buy can use interchangeable coils.
Headphones
Although most metal detectors have built-in speakers the use of headphones is recommended. These help to exclude outside noise that can mask any faint signals.

You will find that most metal detectors will generally accept any type of headphone from the portable CD player type right up to the largest size available. Most dealers also stock more expensive headphones that offer a “signal boost” facility. Again, it all boils down to what you are willing to spend. Headphones also help to keep your ears warm in the winter!

Digging Implements

It can’t be stressed enough that the need for a good quality digging tool is essential in this hobby. Whether you opt for a simple trowel or a foot-assisted spade, you would be well advised to buy the strongest that you can afford. A cheap “tinny” trowel may be ideal for garden use but it won’t last five minutes in the field. This is particularly important if you intend to detect in an area where the soil is of the heavy clay type. I have seen, and personally experienced, several occasions when digging implements have bent or broken completely while in use. This can really be a nuisance when a promising target has been located but the finder can’t get to it due to implement failure. It may also be advisable to keep a spare tool somewhere near to hand - as I do.

Coin Probes

These are small “metal detectors” that are basically not much bigger than a pen and cigarette packet and fit easily into one’s pocket. They are used only when a small target proves difficult to locate in a hole. The end of the probe is swept around the inside of the hole and a small LED lights up when it comes into close proximity with the coin or artefact.

Finds Bags

The worst thing you can do to a precious find is put it straight into your pocket along with all the other odds and ends that you have extracted from the ground. This will probably do more damage than centuries of agriculture and corrosion could ever do! Most detectorists wear waistband type pouches to carry any “good” finds. It is also recommended to carry a selection of self-sealing polythene bags in order to keep delicate finds separate from one another.

Basic Kit

Apart from the above, basic kit should include warm or waterproof clothing (depending on weather conditions), sturdy boots or Wellingtons, gloves, water, First Aid (sticking plasters), notepad and pencil and insect repellent. Also, either tell somebody where you are going or take along your mobile phone.

Once you have bought, borrowed - or perhaps been lucky enough to have been given a metal detector as a Christmas or birthday gift - the next consideration concerns where you can use it.

The information in this chapter will, hopefully, provide you with some idea of the places worth searching, how to find them, and (most importantly) how to seek search permission.

Gardens

The first place you will obviously try is your own garden, if only to see how your detector works. If you live in a fairly modern house, you need to bear in mind that it was once a building site and you will, without a doubt, find a plethora of associated junk. By this I mean such things as nails, rusty metal, silver paper and cigarette cartons.

If you live in an older house, or know somebody who does and is willing to let you search their garden, you stand a reasonably good chance of making some interesting finds. Many people have lost rings or other items of jewellery in their own gardens. I was once asked to come and search the grounds of a large country house after the owner lost a valuable signet ring while playing badminton on the lawn.

Of course, the older the house the greater chance you have of finding something of historical interest. I once asked permission to search the grounds of a large house that dated back to the 17th century. On the lawn at the back of the house I unearthed a beautifully ornate trigger guard from a flintlock pistol, which was contemporary with the house. I gave this to the owner, who was very pleased with it.

If you are friendly with your local vicar then it is always worth trying to seek permission to search the grounds of the local rectory. Many tea parties would have been held in the gardens offering the chances of making some interesting finds.

Parks & Commons

If no restrictions on the use of metal detectors exist (check the local bye-laws) then parks and commons can offer a good chance of making some interesting finds. The age of the park, or common, will reflect the type of finds you can expect to make. Don’t be put off by parkland that is surrounded by modern development; always remember that it was probably farmland at one time.

If there are any very old trees in the park then search around them; people will have sat or even picnicked under them at some time in the past. The large oak tree featured in Fig.3.1. is situated in a park surrounded by modern development. When I searched around it some years ago I found over 40 coins dating from George III to the modern day. Under another tree, some 50yd away, I found a large, chunky-linked gold bracelet worth several hundred pounds.

You will undoubtedly find masses of silver paper and pull-tabs but with careful use of discrimination, or “notch”, much of this can be eliminated.

Commons are usually very old; many of them were used hundreds of years ago by villagers to graze livestock. In the past some spectacular finds have been made on them. One common in particular, near where I live, yielded a hoard of coins dating from the Civil War. When I searched it for the first time in 1986 I found the Roman gold coin shown in Fig.3.2. under some bushes! Again, it is always wise to check the by-laws before attempting to detect on commons.

Ploughed Fields

Ploughed fields generally offer the greatest prospects for making good finds and are the most favoured sites for any detectorist. This is mainly because they are continuously being turned over, bringing new finds to the surface. The only drawback to these sites is the damage caused to many finds by farm machinery and long-term exposure to agro-chemicals. This doesn’t mean that you won’t find anything in good condition, however. As an example take the Roman brooch in Fig.3.4., which was found on plough-soil and is in remarkably good condition.

To give you the basics of which ploughed fields are best to search would take a whole volume in itself. But you may improve your chances by doing plenty of research, which is covered in Chapter 4.

Generally, any fields close to an ancient settlement will probably yield finds associated with it. Detecting near any Roman sites, for example, will almost certainly yield things such as Roman coins, brooches, tools and other implements.

Many Roman settlements or habitations were established on sites that already existed prior to the Roman occupation; this means that you could even find coins and artefacts that pre-date the Roman period. These could include coins and artefacts from both the Iron Age and, possibly, the Bronze Age.

It is also worth searching fields close to Roman roads. These often yield occasional Roman finds, or even hoards of coins deposited by merchants who feared attacks by bandits.

Fields close to old villages will always yield finds lost by earlier inhabitants. Prior to the Second World War, the vast majority of villagers were employed on the land and the variety of things that many of them lost will amaze you.
You will find an abundance of buttons, thimbles (for repairing clothes in the field), coins, jewellery, cutlery, pipe tampers, lead bale seals, medallions (see Fig.3.6.) and, of course, harness fittings. Another common find is the crotal bell (Fig.3.7.). These usually date from around the 17th century and were used on harnesses, etc.

Fields close or adjacent to old churches are always worth searching. Since medieval times, the church would have been the centre of activity in any village. Most modern towns and villages started out as small settlements around a church and many losses would have been made near them.

The most common find will be what is often regarded as the bane of all detectorists - the shotgun cartridge cap. Don’t be tempted to throw these back into the ground, however, as you’ll only end up digging them up again at some time in the future.

Pasture

Pasture fields probably have only two distinct advantages over ploughed fields. Firstly, unlike ploughed fields, you can search them at almost any time of the year (providing they don’t contain livestock). Secondly, due to less soil disturbance, the finds often come up in better condition.

The only real drawback to these sites, however, is that once they have been detected thoroughly they don’t yield much afterwards - unless the farmer disturbs the soil, that is.

It is worth remembering that many pasture fields have at some time in their history been ploughed for one reason or another, leaving the strata in disarray. Don’t be too surprised, therefore, if you find something Roman at, say, 2in depth and then unearth a Victorian penny at 10in!

Following the same guidelines as for ploughed fields will once again improve your chances of making good finds.

Footpaths & Woodland

Detecting on footpaths and in woodland is one way of keeping yourself active during the “dormant” season (by that we mean during the summer months when ploughed fields are inaccessible due to crop growth).

Footpaths, particularly well-used ones, will undoubtedly yield coins and other objects lost by ramblers. Larger trackways and footpaths, which date back centuries, could yield more interesting finds.

One very old trackway, which we searched some years ago, yielded a gold half-sovereign, Victorian coins, and a silver shoe buckle dating from the 18th century.

Sadly, you will also find considerable amounts of modern refuse, such as: pull-tabs, silver paper and even drink cans, etc.
Stiles also present good opportunities for finds as many ramblers will have had to struggle over them, losing coins and other objects in the process. One stile, which was searched just a couple of years ago, yielded a pair of halfcrowns (Fig.3.10). As I held them in my hand I imagined some rambler, four decades earlier, arriving at a country pub hoping for a thirst-quenching pint only to find that he had lost his beer money!

Woodland detecting can be frustrating at times, mainly due to the vast amount of shotgun caps that they are invariably littered with. To add to this, we have yet to find a piece of woodland that hasn’t seen action by the Home Guard, or regular soldiers on Second World War manoeuvres! If you ever attempt to search woodland you will, without a doubt, find copious amounts of expended ammunition of one type or another.

But don’t be deterred - woodlands can reveal surprising finds. Despite the bullets and shotgun cartridges you will also find coins, jewellery and just about anything mankind is capable of losing while out on a woodland walk. Fig.3.12. shows a beautiful bronze medallion commemorating the visit to Canada in 1939 by George VI and Queen Elizabeth. This was found in an area of woodland where numbers of military badges and coins were also being found. No doubt it was lost by some patriotic squaddie during the war.

Rivers

Rivers have been the focus of activity throughout history, either as a means of transport or navigation, or simply as a convenient water supply. Large rivers, such as the Thames, have seen so much activity over the past three or four thousand years that it would be impossible to estimate what treasures lay hidden in their silt.

The Thames itself has yielded vast amounts of finds over recent decades, and most of those simply from the mud on its banks! These treasures include coins, jewellery, weapons, bottles and vases, and even a fabulous prehistoric bronze shield from the Iron Age, which is now in the British Museum.

Fields, or open spaces, beside rivers are always worth searching. You may stumble across a previously unknown ancient settlement, which could yield interesting finds, or simply losses made by travellers following its course over past centuries.
If you can find areas where the banks have eroded, try these as well - you never know what has been washed out of the soil.

Fords, particularly if they are on a Roman road alignment, could also be productive. The Romans often cast coins or other votive objects into the waters for good luck on their journeys. It is probably a good idea to try these sites during the summer months when the water levels are at their lowest, or completely dried up.

Detecting on the River Thames does require a permit, which has to be acquired from the Port of London Authority.

Windmill Sites

In the past the British landscape was dotted with countless numbers of windmills - some dating back to medieval times. However, over the last couple of centuries their number has dwindled dramatically. Few survive in restored condition and many of the remaining ones left standing have been converted into modern dwellings.

If you can locate the sites of demolished windmills you stand a very good chance of making a large number of excellent finds. These include coins, buckles, buttons, rings, seals, bells and many other types of objects. Fig.3.14. shows a selection of finds that I made on a single visit to the site of one particular windmill near my home in Hertfordshire.
A windmill had existed on the site since medieval times but was demolished without any trace at the end of the 19th century. Fig.3.15. shows a superb sword chape, dating from the 15th century, which I found on the site.

Most landowners will know of any windmill sites that exist on their land, or you may find the relevant information at your local library or Public Records Office.

Beaches

If you are fortunate enough to live near the coast you will almost certainly want to try out your detector on the beaches. Not only are they available to detect on all year round, but they can also be very fruitful in finds, particularly if you follow a few basic tips.

Most of the jewellery losses made on beaches occur when people go swimming in the sea - their fingers contract, due to the cold temperatures, making rings very loose and liable to slip off.

Bathers also tend to lose necklaces when they do the breaststroke. Forgetting that they are wearing them, they push their arms forward and outward - breaking the chains in the process.

The tip here is that the best time to detect on a beach is when the tide is out. Start at the water’s edge then work backwards and forwards as the tide returns. Tide charts are available in many seaside resorts and are well worth obtaining.

There is no best time of the year for beach detecting, although winter storms can churn up beaches well enough to reveal long-lost jewellery and coins.

I remember on one occasion, when I was detecting on a beach near Portsmouth, being approached by a very distraught couple who begged my assistance. The lady, who had been swimming in the sea, came ashore to discover that she had lost both her wedding and engagement rings! Both rings had a joint value of several thousand pounds. Unfortunately, she had been swimming too far out and the tide didn’t recede enough for me to recover them. This was indeed a sad tale, and one that left me feeling distraught about being unable to assist. I would have given anything to have been able to relieve the lady’s anguish by retrieving the rings.

If beach detecting is going to be high on your list of search sites, then you must ensure that any machine you choose to buy is capable of searching beaches; some types of detector do not work well on wet sand.

Where Not To Search

The previous suggestions are just a small selection of the kind of sites that are worth investigating with a metal detector. There are, of course, some areas where detecting is usually forbidden. These include the following.

Scheduled Sites

Scheduled sites are normally archaeological areas that have yet to be excavated. Along with Ancient Monuments and ruins, they are protected by law and should be avoided. Your local library should keep a copy of the Scheduled Monuments Record. If not, then the Archaeological Department of your County Council should be able to advise you.

Most landowners know whether any of these sites exist on their land and will deny permission to detect on them.

Sites Of Special Scientific Interest

SSSIs (or Sites of Special Scientific Interest) are usually conservation areas that have been set up in order to protect wildlife and plant life. Again, there are laws protecting these sites and detecting is usually out of the question.

To find the most promising and, hopefully, most productive sites research is necessary. After you have located potentially good sites the next step, of course, is to gain permission to search them.

Naturally, the fact that you have intensively researched an interesting looking area does not mean to say that when you approach the landowner you will gain search permission. However, if you take along the results of your research when you knock on the door it can help weigh the odds in your favour. Even if you should receive a rejection your hours or days of research will be by no means wasted. The exercise will have increased your knowledge of local history, and - from the experience gained - will make the next research project that much easier.

Much of the documentary site research that you will conduct is the paper equivalent of fieldwalking. Where appropriate in this chapter, therefore, helpful hints and links to fieldwalking are included to expand the topic. The majority of these additions are based on our own experiences.

There are a number of sources of invaluable information to assist you in finding promising areas worth searching. The following suggestions are the recognised areas of research that have been adopted by The Pastfinders (of which Dave and myself are members). We have found them all highly effective.

Modern Ordnance Survey & Older Maps

Maps such as these can be used to examine field shapes and road patterns, and many historical sites are shown on them as well. A lane or track, for example, which has a semi-circular or basically circular route may indicate an enclosed settlement that the road or track went around. Roman roads will deviate from straight alignment normally only as topographical requirements dictate, but we once discovered a former Roman temple opposite a small un-required deviation. In all probability the deviation may not have been temple linked, but it shows how looking for the slightly out of the ordinary features can bring rewards.

Other places worthy of investigation are crossings of ancient trackways or marked Roman roads. The most ideal modern maps for this purpose are the Ordnance Survey “Explorer” and “Pathfinder” ranges, both at a scale of 1:25000 (2.5 inches to the mile).

Please note that the green coloured cover Pathfinder range of maps is unfortunately no longer published, but copies are still worth obtaining if you encounter them second hand.

Many moated sites, coin hoard find spots, and old windmills are also marked on such maps. The surrounding areas to these should reveal finds. Look for isolated churches that may indicate a village abandoned due to the plague. Landowners re-designing their estates or areas around these churches could reveal traces of the original settlement. Small clusters of isolated ponds could be the carp ponds from a long-vanished monastic building or early manor house.

Isolated large trees, copses and field corners near farms and villages are also easily spotted on such maps. Such places are where picnickers and farm labourers of the past may have taken their work breaks. Also look for rivers and spring sites that could have supplied water to a nearby settlement.

A number of websites are available that allow you to look at old maps of your area. These can be invaluable for locating lost footpaths, and many show windmill sites etc that do not always feature on more modern versions.

Tythe maps are an excellent source to study field shapes prior to Enclosure actions of the last 400 years. The majority of these often tiny individually held tythe plots have long since disappeared.

Study the contour lines on maps to locate rises in land; in flattish countryside hills and slopes have attracted people for many millennia.

Libraries, Museums, County Halls, Churches & Public Records Offices

Many libraries stock a good selection of general, and more local books and records; some even stock old aerial photographs. These are mostly 1940s and 50s RAF exposures, but some sources also have Luftwaffe photographs as the German air force extensively photographed the UK during reconnaissance in the early years of the Second World War.

Aerial photographs are as good as maps, with the added bonus that they will show you crop markings and other potential sites not usually detailed on maps. However, one should always use caution, as there are quite a number of pitfalls in site interpretation from aerial photographs. One example we have encountered is Second World War ploughed out bomb craters and search light battery sites that can look like Bronze Age and later ring ditches. But if you are interested in searching for World War Two artefacts, then perhaps it’s just as appropriate to consider the reverse.

Yet another factor that can easily fool the inexperienced and experienced alike is a geological fault that can occur on some chalk hills. This is where soil slips from the peak downwards; in severe cases this can form a band of rings around the hilltop. Natural occurrences such as these are easily mistaken for ditches associated with Bronze Age or other settlements (please refer to Chapter 6 for further examples).

Regarding aerial photographs there are again a number of very good web sites that cover most of the UK, and the potential of these is phenomenal. Your local museum will also be a rich source of information. Many museums now have excellent relationships with detectorists, and quite a few stock an excellent display of published books and pamphlets on local history. Most museum staff will only be too pleased to put you in contact with county archaeological departments, Finds Liaison Officers, and local historians. Some museums also stock records of archaeological digs and investigations going back decades, many beyond living memory.

Public Records are a rich source of research information and hold a wide variety of records that may be useful to you, such as Tithe Maps.

Churches may be the centre of a local magazine publication that contains many interesting facts and details about villages etc. Some churches will also house the parish records, which can be viewed by appointment. Parish records for the years 1939-50 can be very rewarding to look at. The principle reason for this is that huge areas of pasture and virtually any available plot of land were put to the plough or the spade to increase this country’s food production. Consequently more artefacts, coin hoards and sites of historical interest were uncovered than ever before, and many were reported in the local parish records.

County Halls can also sometimes be good sources of information. One we know of houses a comprehensive record of all known crop markings in that county. All of these sources are extremely good for research and gathering information; how you use it will undoubtedly be reflected in your future finds rate.

Local Newspapers

These can be very good for articles on local archaeological discoveries and more often than not individual metal detector finds. If you are new to the hobby the article may include a contact name or group who you could approach.

Local newspapers are as always a good way of getting to know what’s going on in your area. Such local newspapers also carry articles and notices in relation to new developments such as roadways and housing estates. Both sites could be worth obtaining permission to search on. Should these new developments be in areas of historic interest, find out if there is any rescue work going on. Perhaps the group doing this would welcome somebody to help metal detect the spoil. One such notice relating to a new bypass in our district led us to gain permission to briefly search the cuttings made along its route. Most of these were dug into chalk, so any interesting soil disturbances showed up clearly. When we arrived we noticed a series of circular clay patches full of round pebbles. Numerous worked flints and cores were scattered about and inside these circular patches. We later discussed the finds and concluded that most likely the new road cutting had truncated some prehistoric flint mines. Later when glaciation occurred after their excavation, these holes became filled with clays and thousands of pebbles as the huge ice mass ground and slid its way over them.

Talking To Local People

It’s a very good idea to talk to local people about your new hobby. For instance, somebody might remember their grandfather ploughing up some coins before the war. Developing a network of people, who are aware of your interests, will help your research. Public houses can be very good nodal points for meeting people and asking who owns such and such bit of land etc.

If you are lucky people will start to contact you, telling you when a certain field is ploughed, or that Mr. Smith has a collection of coins from his garden etc. Agricultural workers in many cases will be aware of features that are of interest to you, due to the nature of their work.
Is there a local historian who might be able to assist you? You might even hear of other local detectorists, who - if they care about the hobby - will I am sure help you with the early stages of research. (Although don’t expect that they will always tell you where all their wonderful Roman denarii came from; sites like these you will have to find for yourself).

Finally, if these people are helping you and they are in turn interested in history etc, do inform them of what you are finding. Your finds rate in a certain area may be directly connected to a bit of information given to you. We share knowledge related to this hobby with a wide variety of people and organizations including schools, other detecting groups, history societies and museums. In turn, a reciprocal flow of information comes back.

Fieldwalking

Fieldwalking is the final part of site research (dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 6). There are no hard and fast rules to the order in which you conduct site research and permission seeking. When you have conducted all your documentary research, it could be that the areas you are interested in have rights of way across them. If this is the case you could have a look at a site before asking permission. Who knows, you may even spot a scatter of pottery or oyster shells. Even better, you might meet the landowner or a farm worker and outline your interests to him.

It is important to remember that despite land having public rights of way across it, until you have secured the landowner’s permission you must not use your detector to search.

Seeking Permission To Metal Detect Or Fieldwalk

As with so many aspects of this hobby there are no hard and fast rules to gaining search permission. However, the advice that follows is based on many years of experience and should produce good results.

Our suggestions are by no means exhaustive and you may, on occasion, simply need to use common sense and tailor your research and permission seeking to suit particular areas, and individual landowners. For example, carrying out a little background investigation into the interests of a landowner will give you a conversation point should the opportunity arise.

When making an approach to a landowner, we have found it best to be casually but well dressed, and make our visit at an appropriate time (eg not during Sunday lunch, or at a very busy time of year such as the harvest).

If there is a group of you asking, it’s perhaps best if you send one person to the front door, as this is less of an imposition. Some landowners will say “No!” and may be rather offhand; you must be prepared for this. Should you receive an abrupt negative, simply say something along the lines of “Oh well that’s a shame, but thank you for your time anyway”. Never argue the point, even though it may be very frustrating; always be courteous. You can depart by offering to leave your telephone number should they have a change of mind or circumstances for refusal change.

The Pastfinders are very lucky in that they all combine effort to produce articles for Treasure Hunting magazine. One of the greatest benefits to this is that we take past copies with us when we seek permission. We have found many landowners are very impressed, and on several occasions we have turned “No” into “Well, perhaps it would be rather interesting”. Not everyone writes articles, therefore as an alternative option why not take along a small neat portfolio of documents relating to your research.

At all times try to put forward the advantages of having a detectorist operating on the land, and show a passion for your hobby. We have found many landowners are fascinated by the history of the land they farm. Sometimes you may hear “Well, I already have several people who come once or twice a year and detect all my land”. This is sometimes a simple refusal with an excuse; but it is not always an unredeemable situation. Try and find out who these other detectorists are. Perhaps they are members of an established club and you could even join it.
As members of The Pastfinders group we are fortunate enough to have quite a few sites to search. When we are attempting to obtain permission for other areas and such is granted, we always ask that the landowner does not deny permission to other detectorists just because he has given it to us. We just do not have enough time to cover all of our sites, and would hate to think that we are tying up large areas of land when other detectorists might be having trouble finding somewhere to search.

Above all, never be downhearted when you receive a refusal. Look forward to all the permissions that your hard work will eventually obtain for you.

Having researched the history of the land previously, you might well be able to inform the landowner of important historical happenings or previous finds that he/she was not aware of. In many cases you will find that this can be reciprocal, and the landowner can also tell you about past finds. This will be of great assistance in helping you to pinpoint productive search areas. A wonderful example of this occurred just as I was writing this chapter. It involved the landowner of an area where we have just secured permission to search. Research into this area had shown that there had been an extensive Roman settlement. We therefore wondered if, and where, there might have been an associated temple. Incredibly, the landowner revealed to us that when his father’s house had been built, the workmen had found a number of Roman oil lamps and curious tripod-legged incense burners. Sadly, this means that the temple itself is most likely now beneath a modern building. However, arable fields surround this modern house and hopefully there will be some very interesting finds to be made in them.

It is necessary at this point to address an important issue. When you seek permission or obtain it please make sure that it is indeed the landowner you are dealing with. A tenant farmer might be very obliging but cannot legally grant search permission without the landowner’s consent. This is worth bearing in mind, as you could well get the tenant into trouble as well as yourself, and all your previous research might be wasted.

Once ownership is established and you have been successful in obtaining permission from the actual landowner, it is a good idea to ask if there are any Scheduled Sites on his/her land. You must not detect on these without specific permission from the relevant authorities, and only in special cases is this likely to be granted. If the landowner is uncertain, then you will need to establish the possible Scheduled status of any sites yourself. Your local museum is one of the ways that you can confirm site status if you are uncertain or, alternatively, you could contact English Heritage.

One other consideration is required, and that is to know the exact extent of the land for which you have gained permission. It is a good idea to ask the owner to outline his/her property boundaries on a map. This will avoid any accidental trespassing on adjacent land on which you might want to gain search permission later.
When permission is granted you need to bear in mind that other people’s pastimes may also be in operation on the land concerned. Ask the landowner if there are regular shoots etc on his land as you would be most unpopular if you appeared round a hedge into the middle of a pheasant drive.

At this stage it is also a good idea to discuss potential finds with the landowner. Remember, too, that if you are asking on behalf of other individuals make sure the landowner is aware of numbers involved. This is where some landowners may set conditions such as “I don’t mind one or two but seven is a little too many”. This, of course, is their prerogative.

Concerning any finds that we make, we normally operate a policy of giving the landowner first choice of anything we uncover. We show the person concerned all of our finds, including shotgun caps, lead dross etc. In the case of a really valuable find we normally abide by a 50:50 share with the landowner.

It is a good idea to discuss and establish a finds sharing agreement at the earliest opportunity with a written and signed contract. There have recently been a number of serious “fallings out” and legal disputes where these agreements have been neglected. We are fortunate in having many sites to search, and a number of very good friendships have developed between us and the landowners concerned.

It is important to maintain these good relationships. As a thank you, The Pastfinders present many landowners with a bottle of whisky or red wine at Christmas along with a card. Without the co-operation of landowners our hobby would not be able to exist in its present form.

We have found that a picture frame, containing a mounted selection of coins and artefacts from a farm, is always most gratefully received by the landowner and provides a good talking point for guests who visit.

One other service that can be offered is a free jewellery or agricultural implement part recovery service. We have found this to be highly successful. In offering it to friends and family of the landowner we often gain permission for even more land to search.

When you have got permission to detect upon what might be your very first site always remember that you now represent the thousands of other detectorists in the UK. Should you encounter inquisitive persons such as walkers etc, always take the time to inform them what you are doing. Show them the detector, how it operates, and any finds you have made. The more people who are made aware of our good work and efforts, the better. We have often found that stopping for a chat, or passing on a few Georgian coppers to such people often results in such suggestions as “Would you like to detect my garden?” or “I own an acre or so down the road, perhaps you would like to try your luck on that sometime?”

If you are polite and informative to the public, you might one day just be lucky and get to detect on a small seemingly insignificant patch of land that happens to have a hoard of coins on it!

Remove all rubbish that you find and dispose of it thoughtfully. Once you have permission to detect on one farm, you can quote this fact when you seek permission for different areas.

From this stage its up to you, but we wish you the very best of luck and success.

As mentioned in Chapter 4, perhaps you may have already taken the opportunity to conduct some limited fieldwalking (along public rights of way such as footpaths, bridleways etc) prior to asking search permission from the landowner concerned. The hints and suggestions in this chapter are relevant to all types of fieldwalking, but perhaps best suited to that done once search permission has been obtained. In such circumstances - crop conditions permitting - you are unrestricted and can wander at will.

However, when you fieldwalk, what exactly are you looking for? That could be dependent upon your particular interests, and could extend from the Bronze Age to hunting Second World War relics.

The term “fieldwalking” largely applies to agricultural land subject to ploughing, but at the same time can take in a wide variety of other terrains such as chalk pits, riverbanks, and wooded areas. Woodlands, for example, cover many medieval moated sites, and depending on the season when your search takes place many factors dealt with below could be applicable. If you discover a site of interest, and there is an adjacent river, check the exposed banks; often stones, pottery and other clues can be evident.

A small river we checked recently had occupation evidence clearly visible in its banks as well as huge worked stones lying on its bed. This certainly stimulated our interest in this newly fieldwalked area, and resulted in some very interesting finds being made.

While on the subject of rivers, study the banks for erosion on both sides as this might indicate an ancient crossing place. Often there can be traces of the trackways in the same areas, particularly if the river course is surrounded by un-ploughed ancient meadowland.

However a field surface that has been deep ploughed, harrowed or rolled flat, will perhaps reveal the most to the keen fieldwalker, hopefully revealing the potential of metallic finds that may be associated with your discoveries.

Such surfaces may evidence pottery shards, stone scatters, odd coins, different soil colouration, tile, oyster shells and a whole host of indicators to past ancient activities.

This chapter will therefore deal for the most part with ploughed fields, but will also cover other pertinent details such as animal activity etc that we think may be helpful. Basically, when fieldwalking it can be helpful to look for features that are noticeably out of the ordinary context of your search area. For a simple example, in dark soiled fenland fields, which can be virtually stoneless, a large scatter of stones would be unusual and could indicate a building from some period. A large scatter of flints on the top of a Hertfordshire chalk slope is almost always a geological occurrence. A patch of dark soil in a light coloured soil field, or a patch of light soil in a dark coloured field, would both be of interest.

However, never be too dismissive or too confident; many a Roman villa has probably been missed over the years by over-confidence, and not bothering to closely check something out.

We have found that for searching large fields a powerful pair of binoculars can be of great assistance.

If you are lucky, perhaps your earlier research has revealed a series of rectangular crop markings and you already have a firm objective to set out and look at these. There follows below a list of factors that we would pay attention to, or most certainly be looking at, to see if we could establish such a presence.

Fieldwalking is a marvellous section of research and can be extremely fulfilling. As you become more and more experienced you will find that you automatically make calculations that can make you smile as they lead you to find such a thing as a Roman farmstead. The presence of this may have been quite obvious to you, but never grow too confident for in your enthusiasm to reach this site you may have walked too fast and missed a smaller ancient farm right beneath your feet. Take your time and you should hopefully be rewarded with finds.

Experience can tell here, but it is often the metal detector that determines the final classification. For example, you have been out fieldwalking and in one area have found some grey coloured pottery fragments, one or two glossy red decorated shards, several oysters and some tiles, and a very lucky eyes only find of a hammered coin.

This means that the site you have found could be:-
1. A medieval site with some traces of earlier Roman habitation.
2. A Roman site with a casual hammered coin loss as the building materials were robbed out at a later stage.
3. A midden showing Roman, Saxon and medieval pottery.
4. A place where somebody has dumped soil from another district.

Perhaps a later metal detector search results in the recovery of over 50 late 3rd and 4th century coins, spread over this area and further afield. Here the metal detector has assisted in identification of the fieldwalking-discovered site, as to being a late Roman settlement.

Fieldwalking on its own is never easy or even conclusive, but it is always very enjoyable.

If you are fieldwalking remember to close any gates that you have opened, be aware of any livestock present, and obey any legal signs displayed. You should also take every precaution not to disturb breeding birds or wild life. As a basic rule any wild bird that ventures unnaturally close to you means that in all probability you are very near its eggs or newly hatched young. So walk carefully away. Fortunately, most fieldwalking occurs well after most of the breeding season has been completed. The following factors relating to settlement/habitation sites do not normally occur on their own, although it is likely, in some cases, that you will notice only one initially.

As you become more experienced, when you investigate a stone scatter related to a settlement etc, you will notice tiles, pottery and shells as well. Gaining fieldwalking experience will illustrate to you just how interrelated some of the features listed below can be.

Hopefully, these categories will help you to analyse just what it is you are looking at, as well as gaining the knowledge to dismiss the many misleading features and their causes. While it does not aim to provide all the answers, it is hoped it will stimulate your own path of research.

Stone & Tile Scatters

Concentrated stone and/or tile scatters can be a very good indication that the area you are fieldwalking has seen past human activity. It is a high possibility that almost every field you check will have one or two visible fragments of tile here and there. Some of these result from the medieval/Tudor and later habit of spreading tile over fields to assist with drainage. Hopefully, after closer examination they will be discovered in association with some of the other factors outlined below. Some stone scatters can be visible for many miles dependent on the type and colour of the soil they are present on. Stone scatters can represent debris from medieval churches, Roman villas, and a whole host of other buildings and reasons.

More recent buildings tend to be associated with brick and slate or tile scatters, and glazed pottery. Sometimes a stone and tile scatter can be related to a Roman building that is some distance away. We know of one example where the building materials from a villa were robbed out. The medieval or later builders deposited these materials by the side of a road. We thought we had a good site but when no Roman coins appeared we were therefore surprised to say the least. Several hundred feet away there was a noticeable dark soil patch with some cobblestones; when detected over this revealed the villa and many of its coins and artefacts.

This relocation and re-use of building materials is also reflected in the fabric of some older churches and walls. Frequently in Norman and later times the local Roman villa site was seen as a cost saving source of building materials. You can often spot Roman tiles and fragments of Saxon gravestone etc re-used in many old church towers. A really spectacular example of this is St. Albans Abbey adjacent to the site of the Roman town of Verulamium; there are literally thousands of Roman tiles visible in its construction. There is therefore a good chance that several stray pieces of Roman tile in a church tower could represent a wealthy Roman villa nearby.

Any isolated scatters of large rounded cobblestones are also of great interest, as they can indicate the ploughed-out floors of ancient dwellings. Scatters of approximately 1in cubes of tile are other signs of a possible Roman building site. These tile cubes are called tesserae, and should you find them made from limestone, fired clay, granite etc, you may just have located a plough damaged mosaic site.

Huge areas of smallish rounded pebbles and gravels are, however, most likely to be glacial deposits. Beware of other geological stone scatters, such as the previously mentioned flint nodules on the crest of chalk slopes; but in all cases, if you are suspicious check it out. World War Two bombs caused large craters when they exploded, which today can still be defined in some instances by variations in soil colour or large stones being present on a field surface. These stones having been brought up from much deeper stratum by the explosion involved.

Despite all the potential pitfalls, however, when you discover your first Roman or medieval building you will notice many of the other facts listed below. One thing is for certain: having acquired the experience you will never forget it. This experience will build and develop; believe us when we say that in years to come somebody will show you something and you will know exactly what it is. Often at that point you will marvel at the fact that just five years ago you wouldn’t have had a clue. You will soon build up an idea of what stones etc are natural to your area, and this in turn will enable you to spot any abnormality all the sooner.

One site was indicated to us by the presence of fractured but worked igneous rock fragments of a type not glacially transported nor naturally occurring in the district. They were, in fact, fragments of Andernach lava used by the Romans for making querns. This triggered a fieldwalk of the surrounding area, whereupon a very dispersed Roman settlement was located. Quite incredibly, a tiny piece of stone had given us yet another Roman site to search.

When fieldwalking on Roman sites it is well worth checking on both sides of any tile fragments you find; it may be a surprise at just how many animal paw and other impressions that are evident. The most amusing example of one of these I have seen, are the tiny feet impressions of a mouse, followed by the paw imprints of a cat!

Scatters Of Pottery Shards

Pottery fragments can be found on a wide variety of settlement sites from those of a Victorian manor house to a Saxon settlement. As a simple general rule, grey brown and black gritty fabrics are old or ancient, while most glazed fragments tend to be medieval to modern. Although some late Roman pottery imported from the Rhineland, and to a smaller extent produced in Britain, was also glazed in this country it is rare to find either. Grey, sandy, gritty pottery fragments tend to be referred to as “grey ware”. It can be extremely difficult to distinguish medieval grey ware from that which is Roman. Therefore you should not definitely identify a site type without taking other factors into consideration.

Just to confuse the issue, some sites have pottery fragments from all ages over their surfaces. In this instance the metal detector will certainly assist in giving an idea of who mainly resided on such sites. Some Victorian bottle dumps have been ploughed out creating huge scatters of pottery often in association with other domestic items such as bones and ash. Apart from modern fragments, which should on the whole be easy to determine, there are also some ancient “exotics” that the inexperienced fieldwalker may accidentally dismiss as being modern. The chief one of these is called samian ware, a bright red glossy fabric often slip or mould decorated. Other Roman types may be black, grey or white with coloured slip decoration equally confusing to the beginner.

Some ancient pottery has crushed shell, calcite or egg fragments in its make up, and these inclusions can be seen as flecks of white within the matrix. Some pale fragments of Roman mortaria have small igneous rock or quartz inclusions, making them appear speckled. These inclusions, known as trituration grits were pressed into the surface before firing to assist with grinding grain.

Other ancient pottery sparkles in the light due to its clay having a high level of mica in it, or having been dusted over with it as a pre-firing preparation. Any dark pottery with wheel or star-shaped circular punch mark decorations is most likely to be Saxon.

Bronze Age pottery, on the whole, is quite rare to find on any surface, as due to its poor firing it can be very delicate. Neolithic pottery too is quite an uncommon find, but can be observed scattered over areas of known flint working.

Pottery fragments in their own right can make up an interesting collection; we have some Roman examples that still have the potter’s finger print and nail marks on them.

Should you find patches of stones, burnt soil, and numerous pottery fragments a good chance is that you may have discovered a ploughed out kiln site. Be on the look out for misshapen and distorted fired fragments called “wasters”; these are classic indications that you are near to a kiln. Once you become reasonably proficient at pottery identification this will become yet another tool for you to use in poss-ible site identification and therefore age.

Finding Freshwater & Marine Shells

Shells, particularly oysters, are always a good indication for areas of settlement. They were regarded as part of the staple diet of the poor from Roman times until relatively recently. If you find shells in an area they may well be the only obvious remaining indication of a midden. Middens are where household and general domestic rubbish have been deposited; sometimes they are near or actually in settlements, at other times they are situated a fair distance away or dispersed widely as a result of manuring. Another source of shell deposits are dried up lakes and meres. However, despite these being natural deposits of shells you should not dismiss them. Such areas have often encouraged adjacent settlement and often extensive fishing and hunting from Neolithic times to when the water was drained etc.

As a discarded oyster ages it becomes paler, with more recent shells being grey brown in colour. Roman and medieval examples are normally snow white with a slight flakiness to their texture. The good thing about ancient oysters is that being white they show up very clearly against most soil backgrounds, and this is even more the case after rainfall.

Small types of white coloured, flattish snail shells found in soil may well indicate that your search area was a lot wetter in past centuries. Such snail shells can also be evident in the ploughed out ditches of settlements and barrows. Other shells to look out for, particularly inland, are fresh water and marine mussels as well as cockles, clams, periwinkles and limpets. It is said that the Romans introduced the edible snail to this country and, true enough, we have several Roman sites where these still abound. If you have never seen one of these creatures before, you will be surprised at their huge size compared to the garden snail. After this shock spare a thought for the possible Roman site that could well be nearby. Where these creatures have once existed and died off you can find many shells; however, like oysters the really old ancient examples are very pale, some being almost white. Texturally, these snail shells can also become quite flaky when extremely old. Look for evidence of these shells in new road cuttings, or along ancient sunken lane verges.

Areas Of Light & Dark Soil Colouration

As mentioned before, a dark area in a light soiled field, and a light area in a dark soiled field could both be indicators of some level of soil disturbance or alteration. Sometimes you may experience both together. The most dramatic of these can be where strip lynchets have later been ploughed away. In really defined examples, the whole field can be covered in 5-15ft thick bands of alternating light and dark soil. Such patches are fairly obvious in their appearance. However, they are not always indicative of human habitation or settlement sites. Only closer examination of their surfaces will reveal this. For example, a recently laid pipeline, or an ancient hedge that has been grubbed out may cause a single dark line in the soil. In the case of the latter, a glance at the tythe map for the area would help in confirming this.

Landowners who have filled in moated sites on their land have created another example of soil variation. Much of this happened in the 1960s when scheduling was not so defined, and it was undertaken to ease ploughing of a field.

Sometimes the positions of ancient kilns can appear as individual small light and dark patches. On occasion, in association with kilns, you will find areas of burned soil that have been ploughed up. Most soil varieties that have been subjected to extreme heat normally turn brick red to orange, with areas of darker carbonisation. Dependent on what the kiln’s use was, it may be surrounded by a dense mass of pottery fragments or nodules of iron slag. Some grain drying kilns have even been found in association with large amounts of carbonised cereal grains. These burned grain deposits have been at some depth; normally any burned grains found above 2ft depth originate from the now banned stubble burning days.

Normally, old habitation sites that have richer, darker soils will be associated with more defined darker crop growth than surrounding areas. Some dark patches have also resulted from neglected chalk pits that fill up with topsoil and organic matter. A dark patch surrounded by an outer pale ring normally reveals such disused pits. Another consideration is where a farmer has allowed a manure pile to stand and mature; this can leave a dark patch in the field for many years, due to the leached nutrients.

As always, however, if you have the slightest suspicion about a feature you should in all cases investigate it. The path of an ancient, now-lost river may also appear as a white or dark line in the soil, perhaps associated with shell fragments. Some areas of Cambridgeshire are well known for these features singularly known as a “rodon”, as they are for huge pale areas associated with long dried out meres or lakes.

In many areas of Eastern England during the last part of the 19th century there was a widespread industry based on mining coprolites. These are nodules of fossilised dinosaur droppings and other organic matter high in phosphates. Mined in huge open cast pits, coprolites were extracted for use as fertiliser; these pits can still be seen as crop marks and normally slightly darker than the surrounding soils.

Yet another factor to be aware of associated with signs of habitation are small depressions in fields. In many areas of settlement the residents sunk a well for their fresh water supplies. These are now mostly blocked; however, we have seen several that, after rainfall, have collapsed inwards. One example left a crater 20ft wide by some 10ft deep that just appeared overnight. Previously, we had frequently used this as a place to shelter for a cup of tea - so always be cautious of these types of initially small depressions!

Soil Types

Becoming familiar with soil types can also be invaluable. Combine this with your research and you will eventually make knowledgeable decisions about the potential of good search areas. Familiarising yourself with the soil types of your locality should enable you to spot both geological and settlement based variations.

The fertile rich, usually dark valley soils, encourage settlement and have done so for thousands of years. Two principle reasons for this are the high yield in crops and the ease of ploughing. Heavy hill top clays were not usually settled because it is only in the last 200-300 years that machinery has been developed able to cope with ploughing this heavy soil.

However, there are always exceptions to advice and clues and we know of at least three Roman sites situated on heavy clays. This leads us to believe that the farming activities of these sites were conducted some distance away, and to a high degree these were residential and storage areas. In relation to soil types, Ordnance Survey produce a series of maps that show geological distribution over the UK. These are immensely useful; when you have discovered a settlement on a certain soil type you can use these maps to study the extent of that soil variety and may find further settlements. This works particularly well with Roman farmsteads, as these moved around frequently due to the ignorance of soil nutrient exhaustion caused by crop growth.

Crop Markings & Lumps, Bumps & Ridges On Meadowland

Sites of buildings, round barrows, ditches and other soil disturbances can be particularly in evidence through crop markings during long hot dry summers. Varying climatic conditions can make crop marks appear in fields, where there has been no appearance before. A few years ago, on land we were very familiar with, a whole series of Neolithic ringed enclosures just appeared, attracting the local archaeological group to trial trench them.

Aerial photographs are a good way to find similar cereal crop or grassland markings. However, this does necessarily mean that they were visible at the time the photograph was taken.

Sometimes, if you are up on high ground, you can gain a good view across low lying potential fields; using binoculars, as stated before, is highly recommended for this situation.

Dependent on whether there are walls or ditches beneath, in crops such markings will show up lighter or darker with different levels of crop growth. Sometimes you will be lucky and see clear markings. However, if using some of the photographic Web site techniques of looking at areas of known settlements or villas etc, you will be quite surprised at some that show up only as large darker areas of crop growth, with no clearly defined markings at all. This factor alone will assist you in discovering other sites.

There are several reasons why temporary false crop marks may also appear, such as where the farmer has suffered a spillage of grain; this will be defined by a much denser than normal crop growth. Equally, where a spillage of fertiliser has occurred this will have the same effect.
With experience though you should be fairly capable of discounting these in terms of size and shape. Remember also that animal pens and enclosures - used up until recently but then demolished - can also result in superb crop/grassland markings that are of little significance to the detectorist. On some large shooting estates the gamekeepers erect huge pheasant breeding pens. These are often relocated, but the scars left on grassland etc where they were positioned can look very much like a large Roman courtyard villa, particularly when viewed on an aerial photograph.

If you are walking in meadowland and notice that the field surface undulates in a series of lines, these are almost certainly strip lynchets. These are caused by ancient ploughing techniques building up soil lines. In this country they most likely date to the medieval period, but some Roman examples are known. These may also be known as “ridge and furrow”. As the sun sets in the late afternoon some fields can have a striped appearance, where the linear depressions fall into shadow. These lynchets are evidence of ancient agricultural work, and very much a sign that there will be some degree of nearby settlement.

Often in association with this type of earthwork you will notice other varieties of lumps, bumps, and ridges. Some of these may be drovers’ ways where herdsmen guided their livestock to market. Others may be hollow ways, which are old tracks that can have very ancient origins. Many hollow ways and tracks can be evident in areas where a later village became detached from the church. Another type of settlement indicator to be aware of is the “baulk” often associated with Iron Age settlements. In many cases this is noticeably evident where a field edge drops sharply several feet for quite a distance. The baulk can be semi-circular, nearly completely circular, or simply a fairly straight linear depression. When observing such features, often something will nag at you such as, “It’s not geological in this area, it must be man-made.” Often these baulks are used as modern agricultural tracks.

Sites where ancient windmills once stood are still often emphasised with a slight mound, sometimes referred to as a “tump”. It is worth remembering that sometimes ancient windmills were established on an already existing feature such as a Roman or even earlier burial mound. We found a superb example of a “tump” in meadowland that was ploughed for the first time since the Second World War. Unfortunately, the top of the mound was thickly covered in flints, pottery and tile. It was impossible to detect on the immediate site due to a dense covering of collapsed building debris, but around this finds were very prolific.

Chalk Pits & Chalk Quarries

In the past, particularly in Victorian times, the digging of chalk pits revealed many ancient habitation sites and cemeteries. Some chalk pits may even have Neolithic flint mining origins. Perhaps of more interest to the detectorist is that the Romans also excavated many such pits. This is evidenced in some areas by open pits and filled depressions alongside Roman roads; these pits once provided quarried flint for road metalling. Today, many of these pits are simply overgrown or ploughed out hollows. However, there are many pits that are still open and provide a deep cut face into the local soils.

One such pit that we investigated has a crumbling chalk face. Recently, a huge portion of this collapsed revealing a cross section through an Iron Age refuse pit. This was a real surprise as nothing from this period had been located here before. The pit itself was about 4ft deep and consisted of layers of burnt cobblestones, broken pottery, and pig and goat bones. Some pottery still showed scorch marks from cooking and was in perfect condition. From among all this refuse we found a perfect handmade clay loom weight, still showing finger print markings from the person who had moulded it over 20 centuries before. Our next task is to locate the settlement associated with this pit.

Please use extreme care and caution when visiting such sites, and preferably go with a colleague. Exposed vertical chalk faces have a tendency to be very unstable. When quarry work is in its early stages the topsoil is often removed from huge areas. In localities where the topsoil is only a few inches in depth this means that foundations and ditches etc would actually be cut into the chalk. When these are neglected and are finally demolished or the top structures eroded away, the remaining features will often re-fill up with topsoil.

The topsoil filled sunken sections of Anglo-Saxon “Grubenhaus” style structures particularly exemplify this, as they can appear as clusters of oblong darker patches. Other features that can regularly show up in this variety of topsoil removal include postholes of timber framed buildings, and cremation cemeteries. I can remember visiting the site of such a cemetery that dated to the late Iron Age. The topsoil had been skimmed away leaving hundreds of small round dark patches at about 8in depth. Upon closer examination, each darker area consisted of burned bones, and scorched flints with traces of charcoal. No pottery fragments or even any associated artefacts were found on this site, so it appeared that the bodies had simply been cremated and their ashes collected and deposited into holes in the ground.

Therefore on a white, chalky or pale background you can on occasion clearly see outlines of buildings, ditches, barrows etc. Although we are primarily concerned with chalk here, any area subject to extreme soil removal (eg sand or gravel quarries) are all equally well worth investigating.

New Road Routes Involving Cuttings, Pipelines & Building Sites

Seeking permission to search these types of locations for ancient features is also very worthwhile; as always be on the lookout for anything slightly different in colour, texture etc. As already mentioned, local newspapers are the best source for keeping track of new developments.

If you locate anything that you believe may be of serious historical interest you should immediately report your findings to your local museum or archaeological unit.

Any old or ancient ditch, foundations etc that intrude into the soils, clays or chalk will almost always fill up with new topsoil as they become deserted and derelict.

With regards to particularly ancient flint mines etc, later glaciation could be responsible for filling them with clays and pebbles. Concerning cuttings and new verges these can often truncate signs of ancient activity. Different deposits of soils and clays or stones may be able to help you date certain features.

Always keep an eye open for other signs of activity (ie tiles and oysters that may appear in the band of top soils at the uppermost section of the cutting). Also look out for areas of burned earth; if quite large these could indicate the presence of kilns. If they are smaller burned patches and widespread, they could indicate the sites of hearths or even a cemetery with, therefore, hopefully associated settlement.

Other areas worthy of searching along are new pipelines. These initially involve an often-deep trench being excavated to lay the pipeline. Searching and checking the spill from these excavations can be very productive. Such a pipeline in our locality revealed the foundations of a Saxon hut as well as two Roman inhumation burials. Several basic earthenware pots accompanied the burials, as well as a wonderfully decorated samian bowl.

Drainage Ditches, River, Pond & Moat Dredgings

In areas that are prone to flooding, many farmers dredge out frequently or even excavate new ditches alongside field edges. The removed soil can be well worth examining. One such ditch we examined contained some superb examples of Roman and medieval pottery fragments. These included colossal storage jars and amphorae handles many still with the potter’s complete fingerprints remaining on them.

Look out for rivers that pass through or near sites of interest. These are sometimes dredged, and numerous interesting items are often brought to the surface by this process. Such dredgings are often spread near the river but in some cases can be removed and deposited a considerable distance away.

The same principle applies to moats excavated in medieval times. Adjacent to these, and the enclosures they delineate, the soils can be totally different to those normally found in that area. This is due to the deposition of excavated soils, clays, gravels etc. Such moats that have been dredged since construction can yield some excellent metallic finds as well as un-abraded ceramics.

Many village ponds have also been dredged in recent years. The dredgings are usually dumped locally, more often than not in the corner of an agreeable farmer’s field.

One such local example, when newly deposited, yielded over 20 superb condition copper kettles, and still to this day releases good examples of white metal Victorian commemorative medallions.

Over the years we have read, seen and heard of complete Roman pots, beautiful un-patinated bronze coins, and Saxon as well as Viking artefacts coming from ditch/river based soil deposits. Such areas are always worth keeping an eye out for, as the artefacts they bring to the surface are often in wonderful condition, not having been subject to any agricultural disturbance.

Animal Presence As An Indication Of Past Human Activity

Animal presence can be a very good way of helping to assess the potential of a site. Rabbits and badgers often dig down to great depths; never miss an opportunity therefore to search the soil spill near their holes.

So far we have seen tiles, oysters, and pottery fragments evident in such soil spills. There is one thing we have noticed that we believe might be of interest to fellow detectorists. On numerous Roman and medieval sites, after ploughing and rolling, there is a great deal of mole activity. Flocks of crows, gulls and pigeons also congregate on such sites. The only reason for this seems to be that past habitation has changed the soil type into a richer organic medium. This is most likely caused by many, or even hundreds of years, of deposition of waste organic matter. This, in turn, has led to a greater amount of earthworm activity than in the surrounding, often-heavier soils. The moles and birds are obviously taking advantage of the increased food source.

Molehills are also worth checking as on habitation sites they are often packed with pottery, tile and decayed plaster fragments. On some Roman and medieval sites where there is extensive subterranean decayed plaster deposits, mole activity can assist in creating a much paler appearing area in the soil. This is due to plaster being brought to the surface, and in some cases further distributed by agricultural activity.

While you are out in the countryside, the calls and presence of ducks and moorhens can lead you to discover small hidden stretches of water. Some will be ditches or natural ponds, but others may be moated sites or defensive earthworks worthy of further research.

Some years ago, the spotting of several moorhens feeding alongside a wood led to us discovering a tiny moated site. Amazingly, this did not feature on any maps or records we had looked at. Therefore when I look at the marvellous finds made in the area - including four lovely hammered groats - it is to the waterfowl that I give thanks.

The Presence Of Plants & Trees

Plants and trees can often reveal soil type, and therefore can be good indicators of settlement. Recent house sites and Victorian dumps can abound in ground elder. On chalk downland the common nettle can be an indicator of activity. We know of one ancient house and several old farm sites on grassland that can almost be mapped out room by room by their associated nettle growth. Willow trees and alders indicate areas of wetland that may have been ancient ditches or moats. Sometimes ancient gnarled willow trees can still show the course of a river that has long since dried up; searching along these could reveal many finds.

The shape of some trees, such as that caused by pollarding is also indicative of human activity. Some ancient hornbeam woods, as well as willow tree